Australian-led team discover reasons behind snakes' 'shrinking heads'

A small-headed sea snake foraging in waters off the
Ryuku Islands. Photo by Yoshitaka Tahara.

An international team of scientists led by Dr Kate Sanders from the University of Adelaide, and including Dr Mike Lee from the South Australian Museum, has uncovered how some sea snakes have developed 'shrunken heads' - or smaller physical features than their related species.

Their research is published today in the journal Molecular Ecology.

A large head - "all the better to eat you with" - would seem to be indispensable to sea snakes, which typically have to swallow large spiny fish. However, there are some circumstances where it wouldn't be very useful: sea snakes that feed by probing their front ends into narrow, sand eel burrows have evolved comically small heads.

The team has shown normal-shaped sea snakes can evolve such "shrunken heads" very rapidly. This process can lead to speciation (one species splitting into two).

The small-headed populations are also much smaller in absolute size than their ancestors, and these shape and size differences mean they tend to avoid interbreeding with their large-headed ancestors.

Dr Lee says, "A team led by my colleague Dr Kate Sanders (University of Adelaide) has been investigating genetic differences across all sea snakes, and we noticed that the blue-banded sea snake (Hydrophis cyanocinctus) and the slender-necked sea snake (Hydrophis melanocephalus) were almost indistinguishable genetically, despite being drastically different in size and shape.

"The slender-necked sea snake is half the size, and has a much smaller head, than the blue-banded sea snake.

"This suggested they separated very recently from a common ancestral species and had rapidly evolved their different appearances.

"One way this could have happened is if the ancestral species was large-headed, and a population rapidly evolved small heads to probe eel burrows - and subsequently stopped interbreeding with the large-headed forms."

Dr Sanders says the research could have wider implications in other scientific studies: "Our results highlight the viviparous sea snakes as a promising system for studies of speciation and adaptive radiation in marine environments."

Australians use ancient DNA to solve 320-year-old Falkland Islands wolf mystery

An illustration of the Falklands Islands Wolf by
Michael Rothman for Ace Coinage.

University of Adelaide researchers have found the answer to one of natural history's most intriguing puzzles - the origins of the now extinct Falkland Islands wolf and how it came to be the only land-based mammal on the isolated islands - 460km from the nearest land, Argentina.

Previous theories have suggested the wolf somehow rafted on ice or vegetation, crossed via a now-submerged land bridge or was even semi-domesticated and transported by early South American humans.

The 320-year-old mystery was first recorded by early British explorers in 1690 and raised again by Charles Darwin following his encounter with the famously tame species on his Beagle voyage in 1834.

Researchers from the University's Australian Centre for Ancient DNA (ACAD) extracted tiny pieces of tissue from the skull of a specimen collected personally by Darwin. They also used samples from a previously unknown specimen, which was recently re-discovered as a stuffed exhibit in the attic of Otago Museum in New Zealand.

The findings were published in Nature Communications today and concluded that, unlike earlier theories, the Falkland Islands wolf (Dusicyon australis) only became isolated about 16,000 years ago around the peak of the last glacial period.

"Previous studies used ancient DNA from museum specimens to suggest that the Falkland Islands wolf diverged genetically from its closest living relative, the South American maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) around seven million years ago. As a result, they estimated that the wolf colonised the islands about 330,000 years ago by unknown means," says Associate Professor Jeremy Austin, Deputy Director of ACAD and co-lead author with Dr Julien Soubrier.

"Critically, however, these early studies hadn't included an extinct relative from the mainland, the fox-like Dusicyon avus. We extracted ancient DNA from six specimens of D. avus collected across Argentina and Chile, and made comparisons with a wide group of extinct and living species in the same family."

ACAD's analyses showed that D. avus was the closest relative of the Falkland Islands wolf and they separated only 16,000 years ago - but the question of how the island colonisation came about remained. The absence of other mammals argued against any land bridge connection to the mainland.

"The Eureka moment was finding evidence of submarine terraces off the coast of Argentina," says study leader Professor Alan Cooper. "They recorded the dramatically lowered sea levels during the Last Glacial Maximum (around 25-18,000 years ago)."

"At that time, there was a shallow and narrow (around 20km) strait between the islands and the mainland, allowing the Falkland Islands wolf to cross when the sea was frozen over, probably while pursuing marine prey like seals or penguins. Other small mammals like rats weren't able to cross the ice."

Disease not a factor in Tassie Tiger extinction: Adelaide University

Tasmanian Tigers at Beaumaris Zoo, Hobart c 1918.
Reproduced with permission from the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery
via University of Adelaide Marketing Communications team.

Humans alone were responsible for the demise of Australia's iconic extinct native predator, the Tasmanian Tiger or thylacine, a new study led by the University of Adelaide has concluded.

Using a new population modelling approach, the study contradicts the widespread belief that disease must have been a factor in the thylacine's extinction.

The thylacine was a unique marsupial carnivore found throughout most of Tasmania before European settlement in 1803. Between 1886 and 1909, the Tasmanian government encouraged people to hunt thylacines and paid bounties on over 2000 thylacine carcasses. Only a handful of animals were located after the bounty was lifted and the last known thylacine was captured from the wild in 1933.

"Many people, however, believe that bounty hunting alone could not have driven the thylacine extinct and therefore claim that an unknown disease epidemic must have been responsible," says the project leader, Research Associate Dr Thomas Prowse, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences and the Environment Institute.

"We tested this claim by developing a 'metamodel' - a network of linked species models - that evaluated whether the combined impacts of Europeans could have exterminated the thylacine, without any disease."

The mathematical models used by conservation biologists to simulate the fate of threatened species under different management strategies (called population viability analysis or PVA) traditionally neglect important interactions between species. The researchers designed a new approach to PVA that included species interactions.

"The new model simulated the directs effects of bounty hunting and habitat loss and, importantly, also considered the indirect effects of a reduction in the thylacine's prey (kangaroos and wallabies) due to human harvesting and competition from millions of introduced sheep," Dr Prowse says.

"We found we could simulate the thylacine extinction, including the observed rapid population crash after 1905, without the need to invoke a mystery disease.

"We showed that the negative impacts of European settlement were powerful enough that, even without any disease epidemic, the species couldn't escape extinction."

The study 'No need for disease: testing extinction hypotheses for the thylacine using multi-species metamodels', which also involved Professors Corey Bradshaw and Barry Brook from the University of Adelaide's Environment Institute, Professor Chris Johnson from the University of Tasmania, and Dr Bob Lacy, Chicago Zoological Society, has been published online in the Journal of Animal Ecology.

Eastern bettong returns to mainland Australia

Thanks again to Brad Wolfe for spotting and sharing this great news.

A rare marsupial long disappeared from Australia's mainland is now thriving near Canberra, with reports the population is fat and happy.

Last year a group of 17 eastern bettongs were brought to protected forest areas in Canberra from Tasmania, their first appearance on the mainland for 80 years.

Adrian Manning, from the Australian National University, says health checks show the small members of the kangaroo family are faring well, with about 35 bettongs leaving the pouch and about 20 more young on the way.

"They've hit the ground running, digging for truffles - which is what they do - and they've actually put weight on" he said.

"The fact that six months in, most of the animals seem to be doing well, putting on weight, breeding, those are all signs that they're happy.

"I don't think we could really have expected any better than we've got, so the whole team's really pleased."

This year, researchers will examine how the bettongs adapt to the environment, and what affect they have on the ecosystem.

And there are plans to eventually move some of the bettongs to sanctuaries and restoration projects in other parts of south-east Australia.

Extinct wild Chinese elephants survived 7000 years longer

Thank you to Brad Wolfe for this gem!

Wild elephants living in North China 3,000 years ago have been identified as belonging to the extinct genus Palaeoloxodon.

They had previously been identified as Elephas maximus, the Asian elephant that still inhabits southern China. The findings suggest that Palaeoloxodon survived a further 7,000 years than was thought.

Their findings correlate with other recent paleontological discoveries that further large mammal species, thought to have died out at the end of the Pleistocene, actually lasted in to the Holocene.

These include the woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) and the aurochs (Bos primigenius).

Such discoveries suggest that the extinction period of many Pleistocene land mammals may have lasted longer than was previously thought.

Read more here: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/20678793

Australian Big Cats facelift

The Australian Big Cats website has received a long overdue facelift, and now incorporates elements from the original book promotion website, which went the way of the Dodo (albeit temporarily) when its website host folded.

The site now incorporates the blog of big cat researcher Mike Williams and information about Australian Big Cats: An Unnatural History of Panthers and the reprinted Savage Shadow: The Search for the Australian Cougar by David O'Reilly.

Pop on over and check it out!

Thylacine caught on video?

We're a little late in covering this, but here it is anyway - a thylacine (or three) on video? - filmed in October 2012 in the Tasmanian wilderness.

While we commend Victorian researcher Murray McAllister on doing the hard yards, we're not so sure he has captured evidence of Australia's iconic extinct marsupial.

Nevertheless, his camera placement yielded amazing footage of quolls, a wallaby and Tasmanian devils. Not bad!

What do you think? Is there a Thylacine in there?

Meet the Cryptozoologist: Michael Newton

How did you first get involved in researching strange and mysterious creatures?
As a Cub Scout, back around 1958, I saw articles on Bigfoot and Nessie in Boy's Life magazine. That same year, Reader's Digest published an article on Nessie, and of course Bigfoot was in headlines during '58, near where I lived in California at the time. In high school I read On the Track of Unknown Animals and Abominable Snowmen: Legend Come to Life. I've been collecting any reports and publications I could find ever since.

What were some of the early influences in your life?
Crypto-wise, after the early articles I've mentioned, Dr. Heuvelmans and Ivan Sanderson opened a broader world of possibilities with their various books and Sanderson's articles in what were once called 'men's adventure' magazines. As a child, of course, I was caught up in the dinosaur craze of the 1950s and early '60s, collecting many toys and models. I also had a small menagerie of reptiles, amphibians and arachnids at home. I've leaned toward writing from a very early age, typing little 'books' on an Underwood portable that was a gift from my aunt, illustrating them with drawings and photos clipped from the aforementioned men's magazines and popular monster-movie magazines of that era. Writers whose work convinced me I should try it for real, in nonfiction, were Robert Leckie (military history) and David Chalmers (Hooded Americanism). Chalmers in particular, coupled with current events from my youth (the Freedom Rides, etc.), inspired me to write about the Ku Klux Klan, with five books on the subject published so far and one more forthcoming next year.

Have you personally seen one of these creatures?
Back in 2005 I found a small cougar attacking one of my house cats. Cougars are officially extirpated from Indiana, since the late 19th century.

What creatures particularly interest you? 
Giant snakes and lizards; kongamato and reported living dinosaurs, although I think they're the least likely to be found at this point.

What cryptids are most likely to exist in your opinion? 
While I hope they're all out there, some of the more 'mundane' seem most likely. Surviving Eastern cougars are pretty well confirmed in the United States, despite official reticence to admit it. Large unknowns at sea also seem very plausible, along with creatures in vast wilderness areas where anything could be hiding.

What’s your favourite? 
If I have to pick one, I'd say Nessie, based in equal parts on the mystery and my love of the area around Loch Ness. But living pterosaurs and dinos tug at my heart strings, along with giant anacondas in the Amazon. Wish I could have gone to look for one or both while there was time, alas.

What’s your favourite Australian cryptid? 
I'm particularly fond of Yowies and reports of surviving Megalania, but think some of the mystery cats or a relict thylacine are more likely to be confirmed, in my opinion. Some great books on cryptids Down Under have emerged in the past decade or so, and I'm always pleased to see them.

Have you developed any theories around where the more unusual animals - i.e. yowies/bigfoot - have come from? 
I've always thought Bigfoot/Yeti/et al. spread out from Asia in various directions. I suppose Yowie could have crossed the same land bridges from Southeast Asia that presumably led to Australia's first human habitation, and perhaps big cats likewise, since some of their sightings predate solutions hinging on abandonment of military mascots during World War II.

Have you written any books/articles? 
I've published 12 books and 37 articles in the crypto field, all listed on my website (see below). The latest release is Globsters, from CFZ Press, with Strange Ohio Monsters coming next year in a (hopefully) continuing series of state-by-state cryptid surveys from Schiffer.

Do you have a website? 
Yes. It's www.michaelnewton.homestead.com

What’s the closest you’ve personally come to finding something?
My cougar sighting (#3 above) would be the closest to an actual discovery, although it got away. Report-wise, I try to stay current with Internet newsgroups and blogs, plus clipping anything that turns up in the general media and grabbing the latest books available. I've only received a handful of reports personally, as a result of queries I sent around while working on various books, and once in response to a book already published.

What’s the farthest you’ve traveled to go ‘in search of’ mystery animals? 
Loch Ness, Scotland. I've been there eight or nine times since the mid-1980s. I'd love to go again, but it doesn't seem to be in the cards. Thankfully, my last trip over—in 2010—was unexpectedly extended by the Icelandic volcano's eruption that grounded air traffic for several additional days. There are much worse places to be stuck than Scotland!

What’s next for you - any trips planned? Books or articles to write? Talks to give?
There's no travel scheduled, sadly, but as noted above, I do have another book—Strange Ohio Monsters—due for release sometime in 2013. I've also submitted a fourth manuscript to CFZ Press, titled Hoaxed!—which examines evidence for and against some supposed cryptozoological frauds including the Patterson film, the 1934 surgeon's photo of Nessie, and so on. No word back so far as to whether Jon Downes has cleared it for publication, but I'm hopeful. I always have other ideas in the works, as in continuing around the USA for more state-by-state surveys of cryptids in the Strange Monsters series, but never know what time will permit me to finish.

Could you share some of your favourite cryptozoology book titles with us? 
Anything by Dr Karl Shuker or Bernard Heuvelmans (though sadly, most of his work is still unavailable in English; a scandal in my opinion). As noted above, some early work by Jerome Clark and Loren Coleman also peaked my interest.

What advice would you give anyone getting into the field of cryptozoology? 
Study as much of the existing literature as possible and keep track of late-breaking news from the Web and mainstream media. Back in 1970, John Keel wrote that wherever you live on Earth, someone within 200 miles has reported seeing some kind of strange creature within your lifetime. That may include something as simple as 'misplaced' species officially unknown from your vicinity, or something truly startling. Scores of previously unknown species are discovered every year, not always from remote locations. If you have the wherewithal, get out and poke around in forests, caves, lakes, wherever. Who knows what you might find?

Oooohhhh Betty! Super snake has keepers quaking

Atomic Betty, as she's known, is a 14-year-old, 6.5m articulated python - the only snake in the world considered a true "man eater''.

The powerful python was due for her annual weigh-in this week at the Australian Reptile Park, the Daily Telegraph reported.

It took six keepers to catch and bag the enormous snake - considered the most dangerous animal at the park, more so than the resident 5m crocodiles - inside its enclosure before it was weighed, tipping the scales at a whopping 139kg.

Native to South-east Asia, reticulated pythons are the world's largest snake and can grow to 8m with a life expectancy of about 30 years.

Atomic Betty is believed to be the largest snake in Australia having grown to 6.5m after being imported from the US in 2001.

Her diet consists of three to four 25kg goats a year.

Koala escapes roadkill status with motorbike

Ouch! This little koala ran across the road in heavy traffic this week. 

Luckily this motorbike rider was travelling relatively slowly and slammed on his brakes in time. A little knock, but the little man lived to climb another day.

Not all encounters end this well on Australia roads. 

Marine scientist Len Zell has recently published a book on roadkill, 'Wild Discovery Guides - Australian Wildlife RoadKill'.

Zell has encountered all kinds of road kill on his travels, discovering many intriguing things about Australia's environment from the animals he finds by the road side.

"It gives me an understanding of the diversity of our wildlife and how special it is and how much I don't know about it," he told the ABC.

Zell says the prevalence of certain species found on the roads to tell how populations are surviving in certain areas.

"It does give you a good idea of population density. The last recorded eastern quoll (on the Australian mainland) was as a road kill in Sydney and has never been recorded since."